Philippine Journal of Psychology

June 1999, Vol. 32, No. 1

Contents

What Do Young Children Think About Thinking? Exploring Preschoolers' Understanding of Pag-iisip
Ma. Emma Concepcion D. Liwag
(This paper received an award from the National Academy of Science and Technology for being one of the best scientific papers published in the Philippines in 1999.)

Eighty-five preschool children, ranging in age from 3 to 6 years old, were interviewed to investigate their understanding of mental processes, as manifested in meanings they attribute to the word "nag-iisip." They were also questioned on how they think, how they know when someone else is thinking, what body part is used for thinking, and whether they believe that puppets and animals think. Results showed dramatic development differences. The younger children (e.g. 3-4 year-olds) had very limited means of expressing their thoughts about thinking and produced only fragmentary and mostly inaccurate ideas about the thinking process. Older children (e.g. 5-6 year-olds) articulated a more sensible understanding of the essential features of thinking. They associated cognition with concrete school tasks and with intentionality, recognized the role of the brain, did not attribute thinking to inanimate beings, but acknowledged that animals, not just people, think.
Cognitive Representation of Number Facts in Bilinguals: Insights from an Incidental Recall Task
Allan B. I. Bernardo

Four experiments were conducted to study how bilinguals represent number facts. Filipino-English bilingual subjects were presented addends in various formats and were asked to write the sum of the addends using the same or another format. An incidental memory task was then used to determine whether subjects can recall the format of the addends they were presented. The subjects' memory for the format varied depending on the whether one or more format codes were activated during the addition task, there being more confusion about the format when more format codes were activated. The pattern of results were consistent with a proposed model which assumes that bilinguals have primary, secondary, and tertiary codes and that the activation of these codes is asymmetrical. That is, the activation of the stronger codes is apparently not accompanied by the activation of the weaker codes, but the activation of the weaker codes necessarily activates the stronger codes. For the very weak codes, the activation of the stronger codes may be a controlled process. The results and the model are discussed in terms of how existing format-specific, spreading activation models of number representation can be modified to include assumptions about activation of information across different format codes.
Children's Temporal Reasoning
Fang Ge, Tian Xuehong, and Yang Shan

The purpose of this study is to explore children's reasoning based on temporal relations, such as: "a before b, b before c, d while b, c while e. What is the relation between d and e?" Three versions of each problem were constructed in the following way: One-model problem based on four premises with irrelevant first premise; One-model problem based on four premise with transitive relation; One-model problem based on two premises; Multiple-model problem based on four premises. All the problems have a valid answer. The subjects were tested individually. 54 pupils aged from 7 to 11 from primary schools participated voluntarily in the experiment. The subjects' tasks were to answer a series of questions based on the information about the order of events given in the preceding assertions. The results indicated: 1) The percentage of correct inferences increased with age; 2) Two-premise problem yielded fewer errors than four-premise problems; 3) One-model problems with irrelevant first premise led to more errors than one-model problem with transitive relation; 4) There were no significant differences between one-model problem and multiple-model problem. The conclusion was that the number of models seems not to be a critical factor which affected children's temporal reasoning.
Testing for Memory in the Filipino Elderly
Grace O. Orteza

The rapidly aging population brings to fore health problems related to the elderly, one of the most feared of which is dementia of the Alzheimer's type (AD). Memory decline is the earliest presenting symptom of AD but must be differentiated from that which accompany normal aging, depression, substance abuse and other cognitive functions which are also common in the elderly. Furthermore, memory complaints increase with age and is independent of memory test performance. Different approaches and tools in memory assessment and their corresponding limitations for use among the Filipino elderly were reviewed. One of the most promising memory test is the Fuld Object Memory Evaluation Test (FOMET). A cross-sectional correlational study of 100 healthy adults with age ranging from 30 to 94 was conducted. It was found that FOMET measures were significantly correlated with age, years of education, and gender. Normal values for Filipino adults and elderly in the different FOMET measures, taking these three factors into consideration were presented. Recommendations for use of FOMET in memory testing of Filipino elderly were given.
The Rubic's Cube Approach to Diagnosis and Remediation of Mathematical Learning Disabilities in Children
Queena N. Lee-Chua

Mathematical learning disabilities (dyscalculias) have traditionally been treated as simply a cognitive disorder. Characterized by deficits in information processing, perception, attention, language, motor or other skills, dyscalculia has mostly been approached from a cognitive viewpoint, using assessment and instructional strategies, with varying degrees of success. This paper proposes a multidimensional framework, drawing from Carandang's (1981) Rubic's cube approach, which analyzes five aspects: physical, cognitive, emotional, social, moral. Actual case experiences and referrals are described, with detailed recommendations for interdisciplinary consultation. Backed by empirical data and theoretical research, the rationale for this multi-dimensional approach can clearly be seen. It is hoped that this framework can be utilized by classroom educators, psychologists, learning therapists, special-education professionals, and others working with mathematically-disabled children.
Pagkatao, Pagkababae at Pagkalalaki (How Prostituted Children View Themselves, Their Sexuality and Their Experience of Prostitution)
Ma. Lourdes Arellano-Carandang, Priscilla G. Fernando and Beatrix Aileen L. Sison

This is a phenomenological study on the sexuality and self-concept of boys and girls in prostitution. Twelve boys and 12 girls, ages 11 to 17, were selected on the basis of the having been in prostitution for at least one year. In-depth clinical interviews, projective tests, and a clinical assessment package were administered by a team of trained and experienced research-therapists. Counseling sessions were held when necessary to make sure that re-opened wounds were handled properly. The responses were analyzed using a modified interrater clinical judgment and discussion-consensus model. The results showed interesting differences in the views and inner dynamics between the boys and the girls. For example, while both indicated some kind of "split" or dissociative process, the girls' self concept issues had to do with being "defiled", dehumanized, and "damaged", while the boys were not concerned about being "damaged" but were fearful of becoming homosexual. These and other findings are discussed in the cultural context of the larger Filipino society. Finally, different intervention strategies for boys and girls are discussed.